poli 2 Transport in plants

See this adress for more information http://www.jochemnet.de/fiu/BSC1011/BSC1011_9/index.htm

Classification!!

Classification of Organisms

Organismal diversity is the product of evolution. Evolutionary paths are branched and numerous, though most arrive at dead ends with organisms which do not survive in the face of environmental change. In this lecture we consider these evolutionary paths (called lineages), ignoring for the moment the processes that carry organisms along them.
While the lineage of any given organism may have twisted repeatedly according to the whims of chance and change, key nodes may nevertheless be tracked retrospectively. These nodes consist of times of identifiable change, particularly points of divergence between two lineages (speciation events). The delineation of these nodes in organismal lineages is accomplished through fossil reconstruction of the past as well as by comparing extant organisms, looking for similarities and differences in anatomies, physiologies, genes, behaviors, etc. From this information classification and phylogenetic reconstruction is accomplished. Classification according to similarity:
Carolus Linnaeus developed a system of classification of every (then) known organism.
This system is based on creating and differentiating groups in terms of structural (and other) similarities and differences.
Linnaeus also invented binomial nomenclature to keep track of group members.
Systematics
Systematics is the study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships.
Science of classification:
Systematics is the science of the classification of organisms.
The main goal of systematics is the discovery and codification of phylogenetic relationships between organisms.
"The term systematics often is used for taxonomy. However, many taxonomists define it in more general terms as 'the scientific study of organisms with the ultimate object of characterizing and arranging them in an orderly manner.' Any study of the nature of organisms, when the knowledge gained is used in taxonomy, is a part of systematics. Thus (systematics) encompasses disciplines such as morphology, ecology, epidemiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, and physiology." (p. 391, Prescott et al., 1996)
Taxon [sing., taxa, pl.]
A taxon is a phylogenetic grouping of organisms.
Taxonomy
Identification and classification:
Taxonomy is the science concerned with the:
identification
classification
nomenclature
of organisms.
"Taxonomy [Greek taxis, arrangement or order, and nomos, law, or nemein, to distribute or govern] is defined as the science of biological classification. In a broader sense it consists of three separate but interrelated parts: classification, nomenclature, and identification." (p. 391, Prescott et al., 1996)
Note that the terms systematics and taxonomy can often be used semantically in a nearly indistinguishable manner.
Identification
Identification is "the practical side of taxonomy, the process of determining that a particular (organism) belongs to a recognized taxon." (p. 391, Prescott et al., 1996)
Classification
Classification is "the arrangement of organisms into groups or taxa." (p. 391, Prescott et al., 1996)
Nomenclature
Name assignment:
Nomenclature is "the branch of taxonomy concerned with the assignment of names to taxonomic groups in agreement with published rules." (p. 391, Prescott et al., 1996)
Note that ideally names have taxonimic meaning, i.e., they give clues to phylogenetic relationships.
Hierarchical classification
Hierarchy of designations:
The full description of a given organism's place among all the world's organisms does not end with its binomial designation.
There exists a hierarchy of designations only the last of which describe genera and species denomination.
"A category in any rank unites groups in the level below it based on shared properties." (p. 391, Prescott et al., 1996)
The major designations, listed in terms of increasing specificity, include:
domain (empire/super-kingdom)
kingdom
phylum
class
order
family
genus
species

Various mnemonics exist to help you remember these designations from kingdom through species
Did King Peter Came Over From Geneva Switzerland?

Dichotomus key Senior 1

Activity
Create a dichotomous key using the following list of specimens: pine tree, clam, rock,
robin, tin can, deer, oak tree, mouse, dandelion, Paramecium, bicycle, ant
Here's an example in written form using these items:
1. a. Organism is living........................................................go to 4.
1. b. Organism is nonliving..................................................go to 2.
2. a. Object is metallic........................................................go to 3.
2. b. Object is nonmetallic..................................................ROCK.
3. a. Object has wheels......................................................BICYCLE.
3. b. Object does not have wheels......................................TIN CAN.
4. a. Organism is microscopic...................................PARAMECIUM.
4. b. Organism is macroscopic............................................go to 5.
5. a. Organism is a plant.....................................................go to 6.
5. b. Organism is an animal.................................................go to 8.
6. a. Plant has a woody stem..............................................go to 7.
6. b. Plant has a herbaceous stem.................................DANDELION.
7. a. Tree has needle like leaves.....................................PINE TREE.
7. b. Tree has broad leaves............................................OAK TREE.
8. a. Organism lives on land................................................go to 9.
8. b. Organism lives in water...............................................CLAM.
9. a. Organism has 4 legs or fewer......................................go to 10.
9. b. Organism has more than 4 legs...................................ANT.
10 a. Organism has fur........................................................go to 11.
10 b. Organism has feathers................................................ROBIN.
11 a. Organism has hooves.................................................DEER.
11 b. Organism has no hooves............................................MOUSE.

WELCOME TO SCIENCE BIOLOGY

WELCOME TO SCIENCE BIOLOGY

TEACHER ING.LIZZIE VALERIANI

I WISH YOU A FUN AND PRODUCTIVE YEAR

LAB SAFETY RULES

When you study Biology you would probably have to do experiments. It is important to know what you're doing as to avoid doing something silly like poisoning yourself or blowing up the lab!

Therefore you should first read and understand the below rules about working and behaving in the laboratory before doing any experiments.

1. Never enter the laboratory unless a teacher is present.

2. Never run or play in the laboratory.

3. Never remove anything from the laboratory without your teacher's permission.

4. Never use your bare hands to transfer chemicals. Use a spatula instead.

5. Never leave experiments unattended.

6. Never smell gases directly - fan a little of the gas towards the nose instead.

7.Never look directly down the test tube or poing the mouth of a test tube towards anyone when heating.

8. Never taste anything without your teacher's permission.

9. No eating or drinking in the laboratory.

10. Never put solids in the sink.

11. Always follow strictly the instructions given.

12. Wear safety glasses whenever necessary.

13. Always read the label on a reagent bottle carefully to make sure it contains the chemical you want. Put the bottle in its original place immediately after use.

14. Always handle flammable liquids with great care and keep them away from naked flames.

15. Always handle concentrated acids and alkalis with great care.

16. Report all accidents and breakage to your teacher. If any chemicals get onto your skin or clothing, wash the affected area with a large amount of water and then report it to your teacher.

17. Always adjust the Bunsen burner to give a luminous flame when not using it (or just simply turn it off)

18. Always tie up your tie or long hair.

19. Always wash hands after experiments.

20. Don't eat anything you find in the laboratory or in the laboratory freezer!

The definition of science:

Science is not merely a collection of facts, concepts, and useful ideas about nature, or even the
Systematic Investigation of nature, although both are common definitions of science. Science is a method of investigating nature—a way of knowing about nature—that discovers reliable knowledge about nature. So science is a method of discovering reliable knowledge about science.
Reliable knowledge is a knowledge that has high probability of being true , because its veracity has been justified by a reliable method.
The method used to justify scientific knowledge and thus make it reliable, is called scientific method.
When one uses the scientific method to study or investigate nature of the universe, one way is practicing scientific thinking to deduce and analyze something and the other is through observing and experimenting.
REASONING IN SCIENCE
Learning about the scientific method is almost like saying that you are learning how to learn. You see, the scientific method is the way scientists learn and study the world around them. It can be used to study anything from a leaf to a dog to the entire Universe.

The basis of the scientific method is asking questions and then trying to come up with the answers. You could ask, "Why do dogs and cats have hair?" One answer might be that it keeps them warm. BOOM! It's the scientific method in action. (OK, settle down.)
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Just about everything starts with a question. Usually, scientists come up with questions by looking at the world around them. "Hey look! What's that?" See that squiggly thing at the end of the sentence? A question has been born.

So you've got a scientist. When scientists see something they don't understand they have some huge urge to answer questions and discover new things. It's just one of those scientist personality traits. The trick is that you have to be able to offer some evidence that confirms every answer you give. If you can't test your answer, other scientists can't test it to see if you were right or not.

As more questions are asked, scientists work hard and come up with a bunch of answers. Then it is time to organize. One of the cool things about science is that other scientists can learn things from what has already been established. They don't have to go out and test everything again and again. That's what makes science special: it builds on what has been learned before.

This process allows the world to advance, evolve, and grow. All of today's advancements are based on the achievements of scientists who already did great work. Think about it this way: you will never have to show that water (H2O) is made up of one oxygen (O) and two hydrogen (H) atoms. Many scientists before you have confirmed that fact. It will be your job as a new scientist to take that knowledge and use it in your new experiments.
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE
Experimental evidence is what makes all of the observations and answers in science valid (truthful or confirmed). The history of evidence and validations show that the original statements were correct and accurate. It sounds like a simple idea, but it is the basis of all science. Statements must be confirmed with loads of evidence. Enough said.

Scientists start with observations and then make a hypothesis (a guess), and then the fun begins. They must then prove their hypothesis with trials and tests that show why their data and results are correct. They must use controls, which are quantitative (based on values and figures, not emotions). Science needs both ideas (the hypothesis) and facts (the quantitative results) to move forward. Scientists can then examine their data and develop newer ideas. This process will lead to more observation and refinement of hypotheses.
THE WHOLE PROCESS
There are different terms used to describe scientific ideas based on the amount of confirmed experimental evidence.

Hypothesis
- a statement that uses a few observations
- an idea based on observations without experimental evidence
Theory
- uses many observations and has loads of experimental evidence
- can be applied to unrelated facts and new relationships
- flexible enough to be modified if new data/evidence introduced
Law
- stands the test of time, often without change
- experimentally confirmed over and over
- can create true predictions for different situations
- has uniformity and is universal

You may also hear about the term "model." A model is a scientific statement that has some experimental validity or is a scientific concept that is only accurate under limited situations. Models do not work or apply under all situations in all environments. They are not universal ideas like a law or theory

Introduction to science

The definition of science:

Science is not merely a collection of facts, concepts, and useful ideas about nature, or even the
Systematic Investigation of nature, although both are common definitions of science. Science is a method of investigating nature—a way of knowing about nature—that discovers reliable knowledge about nature. So science is a method of discovering reliable knowledge about science.
Reliable knowledge is a knowledge that has high probability of being true , because its veracity has been justified by a reliable method.
The method used to justify scientific knowledge and thus make it reliable, is called scientific method.
When one uses the scientific method to study or investigate nature of the universe, one is practicing scientific thinking to deduce and analyze something and the other is through observing and experimenting.
REASONING IN SCIENCE
Learning about the scientific method is almost like saying that you are learning how to learn. You see, the scientific method is the way scientists learn and study the world around them. It can be used to study anything from a leaf to a dog to the entire Universe.

The basis of the scientific method is asking questions and then trying to come up with the answers. You could ask, "Why do dogs and cats have hair?" One answer might be that it keeps them warm. BOOM! It's the scientific method in action. (OK, settle down.)
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Just about everything starts with a question. Usually, scientists come up with questions by looking at the world around them. "Hey look! What's that?" See that squiggly thing at the end of the sentence? A question has been born.

So you've got a scientist. When scientists see something they don't understand they have some huge urge to answer questions and discover new things. It's just one of those scientist personality traits. The trick is that you have to be able to offer some evidence that confirms every answer you give. If you can't test your answer, other scientists can't test it to see if you were right or not.

As more questions are asked, scientists work hard and come up with a bunch of answers. Then it is time to organize. One of the cool things about science is that other scientists can learn things from what has already been established. They don't have to go out and test everything again and again. That's what makes science special: it builds on what has been learned before.

This process allows the world to advance, evolve, and grow. All of today's advancements are based on the achievements of scientists who already did great work. Think about it this way: you will never have to show that water (H2O) is made up of one oxygen (O) and two hydrogen (H) atoms. Many scientists before you have confirmed that fact. It will be your job as a new scientist to take that knowledge and use it in your new experiments.
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE
Experimental evidence is what makes all of the observations and answers in science valid (truthful or confirmed). The history of evidence and validations show that the original statements were correct and accurate. It sounds like a simple idea, but it is the basis of all science. Statements must be confirmed with loads of evidence. Enough said.

Scientists start with observations and then make a hypothesis (a guess), and then the fun begins. They must then prove their hypothesis with trials and tests that show why their data and results are correct. They must use controls, which are quantitative (based on values and figures, not emotions). Science needs both ideas (the hypothesis) and facts (the quantitative results) to move forward. Scientists can then examine their data and develop newer ideas. This process will lead to more observation and refinement of hypotheses.
THE WHOLE PROCESS
There are different terms used to describe scientific ideas based on the amount of confirmed experimental evidence.

Hypothesis
- a statement that uses a few observations
- an idea based on observations without experimental evidence
Theory
- uses many observations and has loads of experimental evidence
- can be applied to unrelated facts and new relationships
- flexible enough to be modified if new data/evidence introduced
Law
- stands the test of time, often without change
- experimentally confirmed over and over
- can create true predictions for different situations
- has uniformity and is universal

You may also hear about the term "model." A model is a scientific statement that has some experimental validity or is a scientific concept that is only accurate under limited situations. Models do not work or apply under all situations in all environments. They are not universal ideas like a law or theory